An ocean (from Greek , Okeanos (Oceanus)) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some ) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas.

More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Scientists estimate that 230,000 marine life forms of all types are currently known, but the total could be up to 10 times that number.

Overview

Though generally described as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean."". This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.

The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. These divisions are (in descending order of size):

• Pacific Ocean, which separates Asia and Australia from the Americas

• Atlantic Ocean, which separates the Americas from Eurasia and Africa

• Indian Ocean, which washes upon southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia

• Southern Ocean, sometimes subsumed as the southern portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, which encircles Antarctica and covers much of the Antarctic

• Arctic Ocean, sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic, which covers much of the Arctic and washes upon northern North America and Eurasia

The Pacific and Atlantic may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits and other names.

Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water. Oceanic crust is the thin layer of solidified volcanic basalt that covers the Earth's mantle. Continental crust is thicker but less dense. From this perspective, the earth has three oceans: the World Ocean and the Caspian and Black Seas. The latter two were formed by the collision of Cimmeria with Laurasia. The Mediterranean Sea is at times a discrete ocean, because tectonic plate movement has repeatedly broken its connection to the World Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The Black Sea is connected to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus, but the Bosporous is a natural canal cut through continental rock some 7,000 years ago, rather than a piece of oceanic sea floor like the Strait of Gibraltar.

Despite their names, smaller landlocked bodies of saltwater that are not connected with the World Ocean, such as the Aral Sea are actually salt lakes.

Ocean and life

The ocean has a significant effect on the biosphere. Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall, and ocean temperatures determine climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. The border between land and ocean itself provides critical habitat for many species that require both to thrive.
Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and distance from shore strongly influence the amount and kinds of plants and animals that live there.

Physical properties

The area of the World Ocean is , its volume is approximately 1.3 billion cubic kilometers (310 million cu mi). This can be thought of as a cube of water with an edge length of . Its average depth is , and its maximum depth is Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over deep. The vast expanses of deep ocean (anything below cover about 66% of the Earth's surface. This does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea.

The total mass of the hydrosphere is about , which is about 0.023% of the Earth's total mass. Less than 3% is freshwater; the rest is saltwater, mostly in the ocean.

Color

A common misconception is that the oceans are blue primarily because the sky is blue. In fact, water has a very slight blue color that can only be seen in large volumes. While the sky's reflection does contribute to the blue appearance of the surface, it is not the primary cause. The primary cause is the absorption by the water molecules' nuclei of red photons from the incoming light, the only known example of color in nature resulting from vibrational, rather than electronic, dynamics.

Glow

Sailors and other mariners have reported that the ocean often emits a visible glow, or luminescence, which extends for miles at night. In 2005, scientists announced that for the first time, they had obtained photographic evidence of this glow. It may be caused by bioluminescence.

Exploration

alt=False color photo

Ocean travel by boat dates back to prehistoric times, but only in modern times has extensive underwater travel become possible.

The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. It has a maximum depth of . The British naval vessel, "Challenger II" surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench, the "Challenger Deep". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men.

Much of the ocean bottom remains unexplored and unmapped. A global image of many underwater features larger than was created in 1995 based on gravitational distortions of the nearby sea surface.

Regions

alt=Drawing showing divisions according to depth and distance from shore

Oceanographers divide the ocean into regions depending on physical and biological conditions of these areas. The pelagic zone includes all open ocean regions, and can be divided into further regions categorized by depth and light abundance. The photic zone covers the oceans from surface level to 200 meters down. This is the region where photosynthesis can occur and therefore is the most biodiverse. Since plants require photosynthesis, life found deeper than this must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source; hydrothermal vents are the primary option in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 2000m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic. The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into regions that succeed each other vertically according to temperature.

The mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of , which, in the tropics generally lies at . Next is the bathypelagic lying between , typically between and Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssalpelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about . The final zone includes the deep trenches, and is known as the hadalpelagic. This lies between and is the deepest oceanic zone.

Along with pelagic aphotic zones there are also benthic aphotic zones. These correspond to the three deepest zones. The bathyal zone covers the continental slope down to about . The abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone which is found in the oceanic trenches.
The pelagic zone can also be split into two subregions, the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic encompasses the water mass directly above the continental shelves, while the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water.
In contrast, the littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region.

Geology

The ocean floor spreads from mid-ocean ridges where two plates adjoin. Where two plates move towards each other, one plate subducts under another plate (oceanic or contintential) leading to an oceanic trench.

Climate effects

alt=World map with colored, directed lines showing how water moves through the oceans. Cold deep water rises and warms in the central Pacific and in the Indian, while warm water sinks and cools near Greenland in the North Atlantic and near Antartica in the South Atlantic.

Ocean currents greatly affect the Earth's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar regions, and transferring warm or cold air and precipitation to coastal regions, where winds may carry them inland. Surface heat and freshwater fluxes creates global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large-scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation. Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on the earth's radiation budget. Insofar as the thermohaline circulation governs the rate at which deep waters reach the surface, it may also significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.

For a discussion of the possibilities of changes to the thermohaline circulation under global warming, see shutdown of thermohaline circulation.

It is often stated that the thermohaline circulation is the primary reason that the climate Western Europe is so temperate. An alternate hypothesis claims that this is largely incorrect, and that Europe is warm mostly because it lies downwind of an ocean basin, and because atmospheric waves bring warm air north from the subtropics.

The Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles that continent, influencing the area's climate and connecting currents in several oceans.

One of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called "typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon where the system forms).

Biology

Lifeforms native to oceans include:

• Radiata

• Fish

• Cetacea such as whales, dolphins and porpoises,

• Cephalopods such as octopus and squid

• Crustaceans such as lobsters, clams, shrimp and krill

• Marine worms

• Plankton

• Echinoderms such as brittle stars, starfish, sea cucumbers and sand dollars

Economy

The oceans are essential to transportation: most of the world's goods move by ship between the world's seaports.

Oceans are also the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of these are shrimp, fish, crabs and lobster.

Ancient oceans

Continental drift continually reconfigures the oceans, joining and splitting bodies of water. Ancient oceans include:

• Bridge River Ocean, the ocean between the ancient Insular Islands and North America.

• Iapetus Ocean, the southern hemisphere ocean between Baltica and Avalonia.

• Panthalassa, the vast world ocean that surrounded the Pangaea supercontinent.

• Rheic Ocean

• Slide Mountain Ocean, the ocean between the ancient Intermontane Islands and North America.

• Tethys Ocean, the ocean between the ancient continents of Gondwana and Laurasia.

• Khanty Ocean, the ocean between Baltica and Siberia.

• Mirovia, the ocean that surrounded the Rodinia supercontinent.

• Paleo-Tethys Ocean, the ocean between Gondwana and the Hunic terranes.

• Proto-Tethys Ocean,

• Pan-African Ocean, the ocean that surrounded the Pannotia supercontinent.

• Superocean, the ocean that surrounds a global supercontinent.

• Ural Ocean, the ocean between Siberia and Baltica.

Extraterrestrial oceans

Earth is the only known planet with liquid water on its surface and is certainly the only one in our own solar system. However, liquid water is thought to be present under the surface of the Galilean moons Europa and, with less certainty, Callisto and Ganymede. Geysers have been found on Enceladus, though these may not involve bodies of liquid water. Other icy moons may have once had internal oceans that have now frozen, such as Triton. The planets Uranus and Neptune may also possess large oceans of liquid water under their thick atmospheres, though their internal structure is not well understood.

There is currently much debate over whether Mars once had an ocean in its northern hemisphere, and over what happened to it; recent findings by the Mars Exploration Rover mission indicate Mars had long-term standing water in at least one location, but its extent is not known.

Astronomers believe that Venus had liquid water and perhaps oceans in its very early history. If they existed, all later vanished via resurfacing.

Liquid hydrocarbons are thought to be present on the surface of Titan, though lakes may be a more accurate term. The Cassini-Huygens space mission initially discovered only what appeared to be dry lakebeds and empty river channels, suggesting that Titan had lost what surface liquids it might have had. Cassini's more recent fly-by of Titan offers radar images that strongly suggest hydrocarbon lakes near the colder polar regions. Titan is thought to have a subterranean water ocean under the ice and hydrocarbon mix that forms its outer crust.

Beyond the solar system, the planet Gliese 581 c is at the right distance from its sun to support liquid surface water. However, its greenhouse effect would make it too hot for oceans to exist on the surface. On Gliese 581 d the greenhouse effect may bring temperatures suitable for surface oceans. Astronomers dispute whether HD 209458 b has water vapour in its atmosphere. Gliese 436 b is believed to have "hot ice." Neither of these planets are cool enough for liquid water—but if water molecules exist there, they are also likely to be found on planets at a suitable temperature.

Culture

The original concept of "ocean" goes back to notions of Mesopotamian and Indo-European mythology, imagining the world to be encircled by a great river. Okeanos, "Ωκεανός" in Greek, reflects the ancient Greek observation that a strong current flowed off Gibraltar and their subsequent assumption that it was a great river. (Compare also Samudra'' from Hindu mythology and Jörmungandr from Norse mythology.) The world was imagined to be enclosed by a celestial ocean above the heavens, and an ocean of the underworld below (compare Ras?, Varuna).

Artworks which depict maritime themes are known as marine art, a term which particularly applies to common styles of European painting of the 17th to 19th centuries.

See also