The person who heads a monarchy is called a
monarch. It was a common form of government in the world during the
ancient and
medieval times. A
'Monarchy' is a
form of government in which supreme power is absolutely or nominally lodged with an individual, who is the
head of state, often for
life or until
abdication, and "is wholly set apart from all other members of the state."
["Bouvier, John, and Francis Rawle. . 1914. 2237-2238.]There is no clear definition of monarchy. Holding unlimited
political power in the state is not the defining characteristic, as many
constitutional monarchies such as the
United Kingdom and
Thailand are considered monarchies.
Hereditary rule is often a common characteristic, but
elective monarchies are also considered monarchies (the
pope,
sovereign of the
Vatican City State, is elected by the
College of Cardinals) and some states have hereditary rulers, but are considered
republics (such as the
stadtholder of the
Dutch Republic, or the Great Council of Chiefs in Fiji).
A 1914 edition of
Bouvier's Law Dictionary states that "Monarchy is contradistinguished from
republic," and gives this definition:
Currently, 44 nations in the world have monarchs as heads of state, 16 of which are
Commonwealth realms that recognise
Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state.
Etymology
The word
monarch () comes from the
Greek μονάρχης (from
μόνος, "one/singular," and
ἀρχων, "leader/ruler/chief") which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. With time, the word has been succeeded in this meaning by others, such as autocrat or
dictator. In modern use the word
monarch generally is used when referring to a traditional system of hereditary rule, with elective monarchies often considered as exceptions.
Characteristics and role
300px|thumb|right|A 19th century portrayal of [[Emperor Jinmu, the first
Emperor of Japan.]]
Today, the extent of a monarch's powers varies:
- In a constitutional monarchy (Pacte), the monarch is largely a ceremonial figurehead subject to a constitution. Sovereignty rests formally with and is carried out in name of The Crown, but politically rests with the people (electorate), as represented by the parliament or other legislature. Constitutional monarchs have limited political power, and are constituted by tradition and precedent, popular opinion, or by legal codes or statutes. They serve as symbols of continuity and the state and carry out largely ceremonial functions. Still, many constitutional monarchs retain certain privileges (inviolability, sovereign immunity, an official residence) and powers (to grant pardons, to appoint titles of nobility). Additionally, some monarchs retain reserve powers, such as to dismiss a prime minister, refuse to dissolve parliament, or withhold Royal Assent to legislation, effectively vetoing it.
Most states only have a single monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries (
diarchy), as in the ancient
Greek city-state of
Sparta, and there are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses or relatives (such as
William and Mary in the Kingdoms of
England and
Scotland).
A
regent may rule when the monarch is a
minor, absent, or debilitated.
Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, sometimes is linked to
religious aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by the will of a
deity (
Divine Right of Kings,
Mandate of Heaven), a special connection to a deity (
sacred king) or even purported to be divine kings, or
incarnations of deities themselves (
imperial cult).
In
Islam, a
caliph is a head of state who is both a temporal leader (of the caliphate, Islamic state) and a religious one (leader of the
Ummah, community of believers). Many monarchs have been styled
Fidei defensor (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the
state religion or established church.
Monarchs have various
titles, including
king or
queen,
prince or
princess (
Sovereign Prince of Monaco),
emperor or
empress (
Emperor of Japan,
Emperor of India), or even
duke or
grand duke (
Grand Duke of Luxembourg) or duchess. Many monarchs also are distinguished by
styles, such as "
Royal Highness" or "
By the Grace of God."
Monarchs often take part in certain ceremonies, such as a
coronation.
Monarchies are associated with political or sociocultural
hereditary rule, in which monarchs rule for life (although some monarchs do not hold lifetime positions, such as the
Yang di-Pertuan Agong of
Malaysia, who serves a five-year term) and pass the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a
royal family, the center of the
royal household and
court. Growing up in a royal family (when present for several
generations it may be called a
dynasty), and
future monarchs were often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule.
Different systems of
succession have been used, such as
proximity of blood,
primogeniture, and
agnatic seniority (
Salic law). While traditionally most modern monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have ruled in history; the term
queen regnant may refer to a ruling monarch, while a
queen consort may refer to the wife of a reigning king. Form of governments may be hereditary without being considered monarchies, such as that of
family dictatorships. or
political families in many
democracies.
Some monarchies are non-hereditary. In an
elective monarchy, the monarch is
elected, but otherwise serves as any other monarch. Historical examples of elective monarchy include the
Holy Roman Emperors (chosen by
prince-electors, but often coming from the same dynasty), and the
free election of kings of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Modern examples include the
pope of the
Roman Catholic Church (who rules as
Sovereign of the
Vatican City State and is elected to a life term by the
College of Cardinals) and the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
Monarchies have existed throughout the world, although in recent centuries many states have
abolished the monarchy and becomes
republics. Advocacy of republics is called
republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called
monarchism. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership, usually with a short
interregnum (as seen in the classic phrase "
The King is dead. Long live the King!").
In some cases monarchs are dependent on other powers (see
vassals,
suzerainty,
puppet state,
hegemony). In the British colonial era
indirect rule under a
paramount power existed, such as
princely state under the
British Raj.
In other cases the monarch's power is limited, not due to constitutional restraints, but to effective
military rule. In the late
Roman Empire, the
Praetorian Guard several times deposed
Roman Emperors and installed new emperors. The Hellenistic kings of
Macedon and of
Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the
ecclesia of
democracies, the council of all free citizens; military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house.
Military domination of the monarch has occurred in modern
Thailand and in
medieval Japan (where a hereditary military chief, the
shogun was the de facto ruler, although the
Japanese emperor nominally ruled). In
Fascist Italy the
Savoy monarchy under King
Victor Emmanuel III coexisted with the
Fascist single-party rule of
Benito Mussolini;
Romania under the
Iron Guard and
Greece during the
Axis occupation were much the same way.
Spain under Francisco Franco was officially a monarchy, although there was no monarch on the throne. Upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by the
Bourbon heir,
Juan Carlos I, who proceeded to
make Spain a democracy with himself as a figurehead constitutional monarch.
A
self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims the monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty.
Napoleon I of France declared himself
Emperor of the French and ruled the
First French Empire after previously calling himself
First Consul following his seizure of power in the coup of
18 Brumaire.
Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the
Central African Empire declared himself "Emperor."
Yuan Shikai crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived "
Empire of China" a few years after the
Republic of China was founded.
In a
personal union, the same person serves as monarch of separate independent states.
Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example,
English claims to the French throne) or titles not recognized (
antipopes). A
pretender is a claimant to an abolished throne or to a throne already occupied by somebody else.
Abdication is when a monarch
resigns.
Unique or unusual situations exist in several countries:
Succession
The rules for selection of monarchs varies from country to country. In constitutional monarchies the rule of succession generally is embodied in a law passed by a representative body, such as a
parliament.
In an
elective monarchy, monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an
electoral college) for life. For example,
Pepin the Short (father of
Charlemagne) was elected
King of the Franks by an assembly of Frankish leading men;
Stanisław August Poniatowski of Poland was an elected king, as was
Frederick I of Denmark.
Germanic peoples had elective monarchies, and the
Holy Roman Emperors were elected by
prince-electors, although this often was merely a formalization of what was, in reality, hereditary rule. Three elective monarchies exists today,
Malaysia and the
United Arab Emirates are twentieth-century creations, while one (the
papacy) is ancient.
In a
hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited by one's relatives according to a statutory or customary
order of succession, usually within one
royal family tracing its origin back to a historical
dynasty or bloodline.
Sometimes the order of succession is affected by rules on gender.
Matrilineality determined the royal lineage in
Ancient Egypt for over three thousand years, but many more males reigned than females.
Agnatic succession bars females. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted.
In 1980,
Sweden became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne. Other kingdoms (such as the
Netherlands in 1983,
Norway in 1990, and
Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Sometimes
religion is affected; under the
Act of Settlement 1701 all
Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the
British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.
Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system. In the case of the absence of children, the next most senior member of the collateral line (for example, a younger sibling) becomes monarch. Other systems include
tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and
Salic law. In complex cases, especially in the
Middle Ages, the system of primogeniture competed with the sometimes conflicting principle of
proximity of blood, and outcomes were idiosyncratic. In some monarchies, such as
Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).
Appointment by the current monarch is another system, used in
Jordan. In this system, the monarch chooses the successor, who may or may not be a relative.
See also
Notes and references
