A
manuscript is a recording of information that has been manually created by someone or some people, such as a hand-written letter, as opposed to being printed or reproduced some other way. The term may also be used for information that is hand-recorded in other ways than writing, for example
inscriptions that are chiselled upon a hard material or scratched (the original meaning of
graffiti) as with a knife point in plaster or with a
stylus on a waxed tablet, (the way Romans made notes), or are in
cuneiform writing, impressed with a pointed stylus in a flat tablet of unbaked clay. The word
manuscript is derived from the
Latin manu scriptum, literally "written by hand."
In
publishing and academic contexts, a "manuscript" is the text submitted to the publisher or printer in preparation for publication, usually as a typescript prepared on a
typewriter, or today, a printout from a
PC, prepared in
manuscript format.
Originally, all books were in manuscript form. In China, and later other parts of East Asia,
Woodblock printing was used for books from about the seventh century. The earliest dated example is the
Diamond Sutra of 868. In the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of
movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive. Private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the
typewriter in the late nineteenth century. Because of the likelihood of errors being introduced each time a manuscript was copied, the
filiation of different version of the same text is a fundamental part of the study and criticism of all texts that have been transmitted in manuscript.
In
Southeast Asia, in the first millennium, documents of sufficiently great importance were inscribed on soft metallic sheets such as
copperplate, softened by refiner's fire and inscribed with a metal stylus. In the
Philippines, for example, as early as 900, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus, but were punched much like the style of today's
dot-matrix printers. This type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the metal document in the hot, humid climate. In
Burma, the kammavaca, buddhist manuscripts, were inscribed on brass, copper or ivory sheets, and even on discarded monk robes folded and lacquered. In
Italy some important
Etruscan texts were similarly inscribed on thin gold plates: similar sheets have been discovered in
Bulgaria. Technically, these are all
inscriptions rather than manuscripts.
Manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in the form of
scrolls or in
book form, or
codex format.
Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately engrossed initial letters or full-page illustrations.
Manuscripts in history
Armenian manuscript
The traditional abbreviations are
MS for manuscript and
MSS for manuscripts. The second
s is not simply the plural; by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as
pp. means "pages".
Before the invention of
woodblock printing in China or by
moveable type in a
printing press in Europe, all written documents had to be both produced and reproduced by hand. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of
scrolls (
volumen in Latin) or
books (
codex, plural
codices). Manuscripts were produced on
vellum and other
parchments, on
papyrus, and on
paper. In Russia
birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived. In India the
Palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century.
Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, and by the late 15th century had largely replaced parchment for many purposes.
When Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a
scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud.
The oldest written manuscripts have been preserved by the perfect dryness of their Middle Eastern resting places, whether placed within
sarcophagi in Egyptian tombs, or reused as
mummy-wrappings, discarded in the
middens of
Oxyrhynchus or secreted for safe-keeping in jars and buried (
Nag Hammadi library) or stored in dry caves (
Dead Sea scrolls). Manuscripts in
Tocharian languages, written on palm leaves, survived in desert burials in the
Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Greek library of the
Villa of the Papyri in
Herculaneum.
Ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of
Antiquity are virtually all lost. Papyrus has a life of at most a century or two in relatively moist Italian or Greek conditions; only those works copied onto parchment, usually after the general conversion to Christianity, have survived, and by no means all of those.
The study of the writing, or "hand" in surviving manuscripts is termed
palaeography. In the
Western world, from the
classical period through the early centuries of the
Christian era, manuscripts were written without spaces between the words (
scriptio continua), which makes them especially hard for the untrained to read. Extant copies of these early manuscripts written in
Greek or
Latin and usually dating from the 4th century to the 8th century, are classified according to their use of either all
upper case or all
lower case letters.
Hebrew manuscripts, such as the
Dead Sea scrolls make no such differentiation. Manuscripts using all upper case letters are called
majuscule, those using all lower case are called
minuscule. Usually, the majuscule scripts such as
uncial are written with much more care. The scribe lifted his pen between each stroke, producing an unmistakable effect of regularity and formality. On the other hand, while minuscule scripts can be written with pen-lift, they may also be
cursive, that is, use little pen-dick.
Manuscripts today
In the context of
library science, a manuscript is defined as any hand-written item in the collections of a
library or an
archive; for example, a library's collection of the
letters or a
diary that some historical personage wrote. Such manuscript collections are described in
finding aids, similar to an index or table of contents to the collection, in accordance with national and international content standards such as
DACS and
ISAD(G).
In other contexts, however, the use of the term "manuscript" no longer necessarily means something that is hand-written. By analogy a "
typescript" has been produced on a typewriter.
In book, magazine, and music publishing, a manuscript is an original copy of a work written by an
author or
composer, which generally follows standardized typographic and formatting rules. (The staff paper commonly used for handwritten music is, for this reason, often called "manuscript paper.") In film and theatre, a manuscript, or
script for short, is an author's or
dramatist's text, used by a
theater company or
film crew during the production of the work's
performance or
filming. More specifically, a motion picture manuscript is called a
screenplay; a television manuscript, a
teleplay; a manuscript for the theater, a
stage play; and a manuscript for audio-only performance is often called a
radio play, even when the recorded performance is disseminated via non-radio means.
In
insurance, a manuscript policy is one that is negotiated between the insurer and the policyholder, as opposed to an off-the-shelf form supplied by the insurer.
Major US Repositories of Medieval Manuscripts
Manuscripts by authors
An average manuscript page in 12 point
Times Roman will contain about 23 lines of type per page and about 13 words per line, or 300 words per manuscript page. Thus if a contract between an author and publisher specifies the manuscript to be of, 500 pages, for example; it generally means 150,000 words.
Footnotes
See also
- Codex - technical term for a book with pages
