An
actor or
actress (see
terminology) is a
person who
acts in a
dramatic production and who works in
film,
television,
theatre, or
radio in that capacity. The ancient Greek word for an "actress,"
(hypokrites), means literally "one who interprets";
[Hypokrites (related to our word for hypocrite) also means, less often, "to answer" the tragic chorus. See Weimann (1978, 2); see also Csapo and Slater, who offer translations of classical source material that utilises the term hypocrisis (acting) (1994, 257, 265–267).] in this sense, an actor is one who interprets a dramatic
character.
[This is true whether the character than an actor plays is based on a real person or a fictional one, even themselves (when the actor is 'playing themselves,' as in some forms of experimental performance art, or, more commonly, as in John Malkovich's performance in the film Being John Malkovich); to act is to create a character in performance: "The dramatic world can be extended to include the 'author', the 'audience' and even the 'theatre'; but these remain 'possible' surrogates, not the 'actual' referents as such" (Elam 1980, 110).] Terminology
The word
actor refers to a person who acts regardless of sex, while
actress refers specifically to a female person who acts; therefore a female can be referred to by either term. The
Oxford English Dictionary states that originally "'actor" was used for both sexes. The English word
actress does not derive from the Latin
actrix, probably not even by way of French
actrice; according to the Oxford English Dictionary,
actress was "probably formed independently" in English. As
actress is a specifically feminine word, some
feminists assert that the word is sexist. Gender-neutral usage of
actor has re-emerged in modern English,
especially when referring to male and female performers collectively, but
actress remains the common term used in major acting awards given to female recipients and is common in general usage.
The gender-neutral term
player was common in film in the early days of the
Production Code, but is now generally deemed
archaic. However, it remains in use in the theatre, often incorporated into the name of a theatre group or company (such as the
East West Players).
History
The first recorded case of an actor performing took place in 534 BC (though the changes in calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly) when the
Greek performer
Thespis stepped on to the stage at the
Theatre Dionysus and became the first known person to speak words as a character in a play or story. Prior to Thespis' act, stories were only known to be told in
song and dance and in
third person narrative. In honour of Thespis, actors are commonly called
Thespians. Theatrical legend to this day maintains that Thespis exists as a mischievous spirit, and disasters in the theatre are sometimes blamed on his
ghostly intervention.
Actors were traditionally not people of high status, and in the
Early Middle Ages travelling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust. In many parts of Europe, actors could not even receive a Christian burial, and traditional beliefs of the region and time period held that this left any actor forever condemned. However, this negative perception was largely reversed in the 19th and 20th centuries as acting has become an honoured and popular profession and art.
Techniques
Method acting
Method acting is a technique developed from the acting
"system" created in the early
20th century by
Constantin Stanislavski in his work at the
Moscow Art Theatre and its studios. The
Group Theatre (New York) first popularised the Method in the 1930s; it was subsequently advanced and developed in new directions by
Lee Strasberg at the
Actors Studio in the 1940s and 50s.
In Stanislavski's "system" the actor analyses deeply the motivations and emotions of the character in order to personify him or her with psychological realism and emotional authenticity. Using the Method, an actor recalls emotions or reactions from his or her own life and uses them to identify with the character being portrayed.
Method actors are often characterized as immersing themselves so totally in their characters that they continue to portray them even off-stage or off-camera for the duration of the project. However, this is a popular misconception. While some actors do employ this approach, it is generally not taught as part of the Method.
Stella Adler, who was a member of the Group Theatre, along with Strasberg, emphasised a different approach of using creative imagination.
Method acting offered a systematized training that developed internal abilities (sensory, psychological, emotional); it revolutionized
American theater.
Presentational and representational acting
Presentational acting refers to a relationship between actor and audience, whether by direct address or indirectly by specific use of language, looks, gestures or other
signs indicating that the character or actor is aware of the audience's presence.
(Shakespeare's use of
punning and
wordplay, for example, often has this function of indirect contact.)
In representational acting, "actors want to make us "believe" they are the character; they pretend."
The illusion of the fourth wall with the audience as voyeurs is striven for.
As opposite sex
In the past, only men could become actors in some societies. In the ancient Greece and Rome and the
medieval world, it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on the stage, and this belief continued right up until the 17th century, when in
Venice it was broken. In the time of
William Shakespeare, women's roles were generally played by men or boys. The British prohibition was ended in the reign of
Charles II who enjoyed watching actresses on stage. When an eighteen year
Puritan prohibition of
drama was lifted after the
English Restoration of 1660, women began to appear on stage in England.
Margaret Hughes is credited by some as the first professional actress on the English stage. The first occurrence of the term
actress was in 1700 according to the
OED and is ascribed to
Dryden.
In
Japan, men (
onnagata) took over the female roles in
kabuki theatre when women were banned from performing on stage during the
Edo period. However, some forms of
Chinese drama have women playing all the roles.
In modern times, women sometimes play the roles of
prepubescent boys. The stage role of
Peter Pan, for example, is traditionally played by a woman, as are most
principal boys in British
pantomime.
Opera has several "
breeches roles" traditionally sung by women, usually
mezzo-sopranos. Examples are Hansel in
Hänsel und Gretel, and
Cherubino in
The Marriage of Figaro. This is uncommon in film, however, except in
animated films and television programmes, where boys are sometimes voiced by women. For example, in
The Simpsons the voice of
Bart Simpson is provided by
Nancy Cartwright.
Having an actor dress as the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long standing tradition in comic theatre and film. Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of overt
cross-dressing, such as
Francis Flute in
A Midsummer Night's Dream. The movie
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum stars
Jack Gilford dressing as a young bride.
Tony Curtis and
Jack Lemmon famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the
Billy Wilder film
Some Like It Hot. Cross-dressing for comic effect was a frequently used device in most of the thirty
Carry On films.
Dustin Hoffman and
Robin Williams have each appeared in a hit comedy film (
Tootsie and
Mrs. Doubtfire, respectively) in which they played most scenes dressed as a woman.
Occasionally the issue is further complicated, for example, by a woman playing a woman acting as a man pretending to be a woman, like
Julie Andrews in
Victor/Victoria, or
Gwyneth Paltrow in
Shakespeare in Love. In
It's Pat: The Movie, filmwatchers never learn the gender of the androgynous main characters Pat and Chris (played by
Julia Sweeney and
Dave Foley).
A few roles in modern plays and musicals are played by a member of the opposite sex (rather than a character cross-dressing), such as the character Edna Turnblad in
Hairspray—played by
Divine in the
original film,
Harvey Fierstein in the
Broadway musical, and
John Travolta in the
2007 movie musical.
Linda Hunt won an Academy Award for Best Actress for playing Billy Kwan in
The Year of Living Dangerously.
Felicity Huffman was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for playing Bree Osbourne (a man in the process of becoming a woman) in
Transamerica.
Acting awards
- Berlinale German film festival in Berlin (Golden and Silver Bear)
- European Theatre Awards for the theatre
- Golden Raspberry Awards Worst in film (Worst Leading Actor and Worst Leading Actress and Worst Supporting Actor and Worst Supporting Actress)
- IFTA's for the Irish Film and Television
- Piala Citra (Citra Award) for Indonesian film
See also
