Sultan (
) is an
Islamic title, with several historical meanings. Originally it was an
Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", or "rulership", derived from the
masdar سلطة
, meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain
Muslim rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty in practical terms (i.e., the lack of dependence on any higher ruler), without claiming the overall
Caliphate, or it was used to refer to a powerful governor of a province within the caliphate. It then developed some further meanings in certain contexts.
thumb|250px|Sultan Mehmed II: [[Ottoman Empire - Oil on Canvas by
Gentile Bellini-1480]]
The dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are called a
sultanate ().
Muslim ruler under the terms of shariah (king/Prince)
Hussein Kamel, Sultan of
Egypt, 1914-1917.
The title carries moral weight and religious authority, as the ruler's role was defined in the
Qur'an. The sultan however is not a
religious teacher himself, and in
constitutional monarchies, the sultanship can be reduced to a more limited role.
The very first to carry the title of "sultan" was the
Turkmen chief
Mahmud of Ghazni (ruled 998 - 1030
CE). Later, "sultan" became the usual title of rulers of
Seljuk and
Ottoman Turks and
Ayyubid and
Mamluk rulers in
Egypt. In the later stages "sultan" was used mostly for the wives of the emperor. The religious validation of the title was illustrated by the fact that the shadow
Caliph in
Cairo bestowed the title "Sultan" on
Murad I, the third ruler of the emerging Ottoman Empire in 1383; its earlier sovereigns had been
beys or
emirs, a lower rank in the orders of
protocol.
At later stages, lesser rulers assumed the title "sultan", as was the case for the earlier leaders of today's
royal family of Morocco. Today, only the
Sultan of Oman, the
Sultan of Brunei (both sovereign nations), the Sultans of
Johor,
Kedah,
Kelantan,
Pahang,
Perak,
Selangor and
Terengganu (within the constitutive states of the federation) in
Malaysia, and the titular sultans of Sulu , Maguindanao , and Lanao Provinces in the
southern Philippines and
Java (Indonesia) regions still use the title. The sultan's domain is properly called a
sultanate.
A feminine form, used by Westerners, is
sultana or sultanah; the very styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans. In a similar usage, the wife of a German Field-Marshal might be styled
Feldmarschallin (in French, similar constructions of the type
madame la maréchalle are quite common). The rare female leaders in
Muslim history are correctly known as "sultanas". In the Sultanate of Sulu, the wife of the Sultan is styled as the "Panguian", not "sultana".
Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the
rule of law, the term is gradually being replaced by '
king' (i.e.,
Malik in Arabic).
Compound ruler titles
These are generally secondary titles, either lofty 'poetry' or with a message; e.g.:
- Mani Sultan = Manney Sultan, meaning 'the Pearl of Rulers', or less poetically Honoured Monarch, was a subsidiary title, part of the full style of the Maharaja of Travancore
- Sultanic Highness was a rare, hybrid western-Islamic honorific style, exclusively used by the son, daughter-in-law and daughters of Sultan Husain Kamil of Egypt (a British protectorate since 1914), who bore it with their primary titles of Prince (Arabic Amir, Turkish Prens) or Princess, after 11 October 1917. They enjoyed these for life, even after the Royal Rescript regulating the styles and titles of the Royal House after the Egyptian Independence in 1922, when the sons and daughters of the newly styled King (Arabic Misr al-Malik, considered a promotion) were granted the title Sahib(at) us-Sumuw al-Malik, or Royal Highness).
Former Sultans and Sultanates
Near East and Central Asia
Arab World
:
Audhali,
Fadhli,
Haushabi,
Kathiri,
Lahej,
Lower Aulaqi,
Lower Yafa,
Mahra,
Qu'aiti,
Subeihi,
Upper Aulaqi,
Upper Yafa and the
Wahidi sultanates
- Oman Sultan of Oman (authentically referred to as Hami), on the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, still an independent sultanate, since 1784, two years before the imamate lost temporal power in 1786 (assumed the formal title of Sultan in 1861)
- Sultanate of Zanzibar two incumbents (from the Omani dynasty) since the de facto separation from Oman in 1806, the last assumed the title Sultan in 1861 at the formal separation under British auspices; since 1964 union with Tanganyika part of Tanzania)
- *Wada'i (main native title: Kolak), successor state to Birgu
- *Dar Sila (actually a wandering group of tribes)
Horn of Africa
East Africa and Indian Ocean
Sultan
- the Maore (or Mawuti) sultanate on Mayotte (separated from the Comoros)
Maliki
This was the alternative native style (apparently derived from
malik, the
Arabic word for king) of the Sultans of the
Kilwa Sultanate, in
Tanganyika (presently the continental part of Tanzania).
Swahili sultan
Mfalume is the (Ki)
Swahili title of various native Muslim rulers, generally rendered in Arabic and in western languages as Sultan:
- in Tanganyika (presently part of Tanzania): of Hadimu, on the island of that name; also styled Jembe
Sultani
This was the native ruler's title in the Tanzanian state of Uhehe
West and Central Africa
- *Bamoun (Bamun, 17th cent. founded uniting 17 chieftancies) 1918 becomes a Sultanate, but in 1923 re-divided into the 17 original chieftancies.
- *Bibemi 1770 founded- Rulers first style Lamido to ...., then Sultan
- *Mandara Sultanate since 1715 (replacing Wandala kingdom); 1902 Part of Cameroon
- *Dar al-Kuti - French protectorate since December 12, 1897
- *Rafai ca.1875 Sultanate, 8 April 8, 1892 under Congo Free State protectorate, March 31 1909 under French protectorate; 1939 Sultanate suppressed
- *Zemio ca.1872 established; December 11 1894 under Congo Free State protectorate, April 12 1909 under French protectorate; 1923 Sultanate suppressed
- in Niger: Arabic alternative title of the following autochthonous rulers:
- in Nigeria most monarchies previously had native titles but when most in the north converted to Islam, Muslim titles were generally adopted such as Emir- Sultan has been used
- * in Borno (alongside the native title Mai)
Southern Asia
In
India:
In the
Maldives:
Southeast and East Asia
In
Brunei:
In
China:
Furthermore, the
Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin (Leader of the Community of Muslims) of
Pingnan Guo ("Pacified South State", a major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province) is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan
In
Indonesia (formerly in the
Dutch East Indies):
- In the Riau archipelago: sultanate of Lingga-Riau by secession in 1818 under the expelled sultan of Johore (on Malaya) Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud
- *Sultanate of Aceh (full style Sultan Berdaulat Zillullah fil-Alam) , which had many vassal states
- * Awak Sungai, established 17th century at the split in four of Minangkabau, in 1816 extinguished by Netherlands East Indies colonial government
- ** Furthermore, the ruler of Luak Jelebu, one of the constitutive states of the Negeri Sembilan confederation, had the style Sultan in addition to his principal title Undang Luak Jelebu.
- * Sultanate of Sulu (Basilan, Palawan and Tawi-Tawi islands and part of -now Malaysian- Sabah on North Borneo)
Contemporary sovereign sultanates
Princely and aristocratic titles
The Sultan Valide or "Mother Sultan".
In the Ottoman dynastic system, male descendants of the ruling
Padishah (in the West also known as
Great Sultan), enjoyed a style including Sultan, so this normally Monarchic title is used equivalent to a western
prince of the blood:
Daulatlu Najabatlu Shahzada Sultan (given name)
Hazretleri Effendi; for the Heir Apparent however, the style was
Daulatlu Najabatlu Vali Ahad-i-Sultanat
' (given name) Effendi Hazlatlari, i.e. Crown Prince of the sultanate.
- The sons of Imperial Princesses, excluded from the Ottoman imperial succession, were only styled
Sultan
zada' (given name) Bey-Effendi
, i.e. Son
of a Prince[ss] of the dynasty.
In certain Muslim states, Sultan was also an aristocratic title, as in the Tartar Astrakhan Khanate
The Sultan Valide'' was the title reserved for the mother of the ruling sultan.
Military rank
In a number of post-caliphal states under
Mongol or
Turkic rule, there was a feudal type of military hierarchy, often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles (
Khan,
Malik,
Amir) as mere rank denominations.
In the
Persian empire, the rank of Sultan was roughly equivalent to a western
Captain, socially in the fifth rank class, styled 'Ali Jah
See also
Other Ruling titles
Sources and references
Category:Arabic words and phrasesCategory:Heads of stateCategory:Islamic honorificsCategory:Military ranksCategory:Royal titlesCategory:Noble titlesCategory:Positions of authority Category:TitlesCategory:Turkish titlesCategory:Titles of national or ethnic leadershipCategory:Titles in AfghanistanCategory:Titles in PakistanCategory:Titles in IranCategory:Arabic loanwordsar:سلطانan:Soldánbe:Султанbs:Sultanbr:Sultanbg:Султанca:Soldàcs:Sultáncy:Swltanda:Sultande:Sultanet:Sultanel:Σουλτάνοςes:Sultáneo:Sultanoeu:Sultanfr:Sultan (titre)gl:Sultánko:술탄hi:सुल्तानhr:Sultanid:Sultanit:Sultanohe:סולטןka:სულთანიsw:Usultaniku:Siltanla:Sultanuslv:Sultānslt:Sultonashu:Szultánmk:Султанml:സുല്ത്താന്ms:Sultannl:Sultan (rang)ja:スルターンno:Sultannn:Sultanpl:Sułtanpt:Sultãoro:Sultanru:Султанsq:Sulltanisimple:Sultansk:Sultánsl:Sultansr:Султанfi:Sulttaanisv:Sultantr:Sultanuk:Султанvi:Sultanyi:סולטאןzh:苏丹 (称谓)
