Identification with Vedic deities

Agni

The fire myth of plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.

Indra

Attributes

Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, with a crescent moon on his head, the Ganga flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull necklace, and covered in ashes, and Trisula and Damaru are seen in the background.

• Third eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire () to ashes. There has been controversy regarding the original meaning of Shiva's name Tryambakam (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम्), which occurs in many scriptural sources. In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes". However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word or means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "having three mothers" that was used by Max Müller and Arthur Macdonell. Since no story is known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the . Other related translations have been "having three wives or sisters" or were based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess .

• Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon. The epithet (Sanskrit: "Having the moon as his crest" - chandra = "moon", = "crest, crown") refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva. The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly emplored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.

• Ashes: Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma).Flood (1996), p. 151. Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy. These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism. One epithet for Shiva is "inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: , also spelled Shmashanavasin), referring to this connection.

• Matted hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets , "the one with matted hair", and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair" or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion". A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.

• Blue throat: The epithet (Sanskrit ; nīla = "blue", = "throat") refers to a story in which Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean.Kramrisch, p. 473. (See Halāhala.) The Hari Vanśa Purana, on the other hand, attributes the colour of Shiva's throat to an episode in which Vishnu compels Shiva to fly after taking him by the throat and nearly strangling him.

Shiva bearing the descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi manuscript by the saint Narayan, circa 1740

• Sacred Ganga: The Ganga river flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet ("bearer of the river ") refers to this feature. The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.

• Tiger skin: He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin, an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis.

• Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.

• Trident: (Sanskrit: Trishula): Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.

• Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru (Sanskrit: ). This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called (Sanskrit for "-hand") is used to hold the drum. This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the sect.

• : Nandī, also known as Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: ). Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name , or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle" and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.

• : The s (Devanagari: ) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the Boothaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title or , "lord of the ".

• Mount : Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode. In Hindu mythology, Mount is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.

• Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered as the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.

Forms and depictions

Destroyer versus benefactor

Shiva carrying the corpse of his first consort Dakshayani (Sati)

Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as (Sanskrit: ), "time", and as (Sanskrit: ), "great time", which ultimately destroys all things. Bhairava (Sanskrit: ), "terrible" or "frightful", is a fierce form associated with annihilation.

In contrast, the name (Sanskrit: शङ्कर), "beneficent" or "conferring happiness" reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher (c. 788-820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya. The name (Sanskrit: ), "causing happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.

Ascetic versus householder

An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha and Skanda (Kartikeya)

He is depicted as both an ascetic yogin and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society. When depicted as a yogin, he may be shown sitting and meditating. His epithet Mahāyogin ("the great Yogi: = "great", Yogin = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga. While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.

As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati (also known as ), and two sons, Ganesha and Skanda. His epithet ("The husband of ") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, and , also appear in the sahasranama. in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign . She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother, and with Shakti (divine energy). As a householder, he is known for the great love and respect he has for his consort.

Shiva and Parvati are believed to be the parents of Karthikeya and Ganesha. Karthikeya is worshipped in Southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya. The consorts of Lord Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.

Nataraja

thumb|[[Bronze Chola statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.]]

The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (, Sanskrit: , "Lord of Dance") is popular. The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama. His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular. The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world, and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati. Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava. The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.

Dakshinamurthy

Dakshinamurthy, or (Sanskrit: ), literally describes a form () of Shiva facing south (). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras. This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu. Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.

Mrutyunjaya

Literally translated as "victor over death", this is an aspect of Shiva worshipped as the conqueror of death as manifested in the Hindu lord of death, Yama. The particular legend in question deals with the sage Markandeya, who was fated to die at the age of sixteen. On account of the sage's worship and devotion to Shiva, the lord vanquished Yama to liberate his devotee from death. Shiva is often worshipped as Mruthyunjaya by the aged or ill to ward off death and mitigate its harshness when it does occur. He is worshipped as such at the temples of Thirupainyeeli, near Tiruchirappalli, and at a shrine in Thirukadaiyur, near Chidambaram.

Chola bronze from the 11th century. Shiva in the form of Ardhanarisvara.

Ardhanarishvara

An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form () is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman". In Hindu philosophy, this is used to visualize the belief that the sacred ultimate power of the universe as being both feminine and masculine.Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri

Tripurantaka

Lord Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras. Shiva's name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: , ), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.

Metaphysically, Tripura has been considered by many scholars to mean the three kinds of bodies of man viz. Sthula sharira—the external embodiment, Sukshma sharira—the intellectual corpus, and Karana sharira—the consciousness or the soul. The Tripurantaka manifestation of the Lord destroys and extinguishes the tri-partite compartmentalisation of the being and merges all three essential componenets of man into the supreme consciousness. The lord as Tripurantaka destroys the veil of Maya, agyaan(ignorance), and affects the unision of the individual soul with the supreme consciousness.

Astamurti

Astamurti represents the eightfold appellations of Shiva in forms of Bhava as Existence, Sarva as the great Archer, Rudra as the giver of sorrow and sufferings, Pasupati as the Herdsman, Ugra as the Fearsome, Mahan, i.e. Mahadeva as the Supreme soul, Bhima as the Tremendous force, and Isana as the Directional ruler of the universe.

Lingam

thumb|A Shiva Lingam worshipped at Jambukesvara temple in Thiruvanaikaval (Thiruaanaikaa)

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam, or linga, is also important. These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. Shiva means auspiciousness, and linga means a sign or a symbol. Hence, the Shivalinga is regarded as a "symbol of the great God of the universe who is all-auspiciousness". Shiva also means "one in whom the whole creation sleeps after dissolution". Linga also means the same thing—a place where created objects get dissolved during the disintegration of the created universe. Since, according to Hinduism, it is the same god that creates, sustains and withdraws the universe, the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself. Some scholars, such as Monier-Williams and Wendy Doniger, also view linga as a phallic symbol, although this interpretation is disputed by others, including Christopher Isherwood, Vivekananda, Swami Sivananda, and S.N. Balagangadhara.

The worship of the Shiva-Linga originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.

In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.
Another theory is that Shiva linga might have been originated from the erect memorial topes of Buddhists consecrated in the memory of Buddha; and the very poor, who were unable to build big monuments, used to express their devotion to him by dedicating miniature substitutes for them. Scholars note that similar instances are still seen in the case of Hindu temples in Varanasi and other sacred places of India where those who cannot afford to build temples dedicate very small temple-like constructions instead. Scholars note that during the period of Buddhist ascendancy, the rich Hindus, in imitation of the Buddhists, used to erect something as a memorial resembling their Skambha, and the poor in a similar manner copied them on a reduced scale, and afterwards, the miniature memorials of the poor Hindus became a new addition to the Skambha.

The five mantras

Adoration of five-headed Shiva by Vishnu (blue figure, to left of Shiva), Brahma (four-headed figure to the right of Shiva), Ganesha (elephant-headed son of Shiva, bottom left) and other deities. Painting from LACMA.

Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables ().

Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the . As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:

• Aghora

These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes. The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:

Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.

According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:

One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)

Relationship to Vishnu

Vishnu (left half—blue) and Shiva (right half—white)

During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 BCE), both were gaining ascendance. By the Puranic period, both deities had major sects that competed with one another for devotees. Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities.

Sectarian groups each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva. The Vishnu Purana (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both to create the world and Shiva to destroy it. Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the Bhagavata Purana. In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world. In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame. The Śatarudrīya, a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu". Differences in viewpoints between the two sects are apparent in the story of (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as Narasimha, the man-lion, who killed Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of Shiva.

Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara). This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the Mahabharata. An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet , "lord of great strength" (Maha = "great", Bala = "strength", = "lord"). This name refers to a story in which was given a linga as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present Deoghar in Jharkhand to purify himself and asked Narada, a devotee of Vishnu in the guise of a Brahmin, to hold the linga for him, but after some time, Narada put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the linga, and it is said to remain there ever since.
The story of Gokarna in Karnataka is also similar in that Ravana, on the way to Lanka from Kailasa, gave the lingam to Ganesha to keep until he bathes, but Ganesha fits it in the earth, so the lingam is called Mahabaleshwara.

As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Ayyappa or Shasta identified with Ayyanar is born. Shiva is also served by Mohini when a bunch of haughty sages were taught a lesson by Shiva.

Avatars

Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as avatars. Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist Vedanta, was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva. In the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.Sage Durvasa is also incarnation of Lord Shiva. Virabhadra who came as shiva grabbed a lock of his matted hair and dashed it to the ground. And Virabhadra or veerabathra is the who severed the Daksha's head as per shiva's instruction.

Temples

One hundred and eight Shiva lingas carved on the rock at the banks of River Tungabhadra, Hampi

In Shaivism, Shiva is the god of all and is described as worshipped by all, including Devas (gods) like Brahma and Indra, Asuras (demons) like Bana and Ravana, humans like Adi Shankara and Nayanars, and creatures as diverse as Jatayu, an eagle, and Vali, an ape. Deities, rishis (sages), and grahas (planets) worshipped Shiva and established Shivalingas in various places.

The holiest Shiva temples are the 12 Jyotirlinga temples. They are Somnath—Prabhas Patan, Nageshwar—Dwarka, Mahakaleshwar—Ujjain, Mallikārjuna—Srisailam, Bhimashankar, Omkareshwar, Kedarnath Uttaranchal, Kashi Vishwanath—Varanasi, Trimbakeshwar—near Nasik, Rameswaram—Rameswaram, Grishneshwar—near Ellora and Vaidyanath—Deoghar.

In South India, five temples of Shiva are held to be particularly important, as being manifestations of him in the five elemental substances:

• Thiruvanaikaval (Sri Jambhukeswar) - Water

• Thiruvannamalai (Sri Arunachaleswar) - Fire

• Srikalahasti (Sri Kalahastheeswara, Andhra Pradesh) - Air

• Kanchipuram (Sri Ekampareswar) - Earth

• Chidambaram Temple (Sri Nataraja) - Ether

The five sabha temples where Shiva will perform dive different style of dances are:

• Pon(Gold) Sabha - Natarajar Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu

• Velli(Silver) Sabha - Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu

• Tamira(Copper) Sabha - Nellaiappar Temple in Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu

• Rathna Sabha - Thiruvalangadu near Arakonam, Tamilnadu

• Chitira(Picture) Sabha - Coutrallam, Tamilnadu

Other very famous temples in India include:

• Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu

• Nellaiappar Temple in Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu ~ Largest Shiva Temple in South India

• Murudeshwara in Bhatkal Taluk of Uttar Kannada District, Karnataka ~ World's Tallest Shiva

• Vemulawada in Karimnagar District of Andhra Pradesh

• Kaleswaram in Karimnagar District of Andhra Pradesh

• Draaksharamam in East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh

• Bhramaramba-Mallikarjuna Temple in Srisailam at Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh

• Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara temple in Belthangadi taluk in Dakshina Kannada district.

• Rajarajeshwara Temple in Taliparamba, Kerala

• Mahadevar Temple in Ettumanoor, Kerala

• Mahadeva Temple in Vaikom, Kerala

• Kottiyur Perumal Temple, in Kottiyur, Kerala

• Shiva Temple in Tiruvanchikulam, Kerala

• Thayumanavar in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu

• Brihadeeswarar in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu

• Patteeswarar in Perur (Coimbatore) District of Tamilnadu

• The pilgrimage site of Kailash Mansarovar are noteworthy. The world-famous Amarnath Yatra to the Amarnath ji Cave in Kashmir (India) is also significant.

Temple in Nepal

• Pashupatinath Temple located on the banks of Bagmati River in the eastern part of Kathmandu

Popular depictions in Art

• Japanese rock musician Miyavi uses the lotus and a crescent moon with the kanji of his name (meaning 'elegance') above, as his insignia.

See also

• Shaivism

• History of Shaivism

• Shiva Puja

• Varanasi

• Shiva Purana

• Dakshayani

• Parvati

• Hanuman