The name
Mongol (
Mongolian:
Mongγol;
Cyrillic script:
Mongol) specifies one or several
ethnic groups, now mainly located in
Mongolia,
China, and
Russia.
Definition
A narrow definition includes the Mongols proper, which can be roughly divided into eastern and western Mongols. In a wider sense, the
Mongol people includes all people who speak a
Mongolic language, such as the
Kalmyks of eastern Europe.
The name
"Mongol" appeared first in 8th century records of the Chinese
Tang dynasty as a tribe of
Shiwei, but then only resurfaced in the 11th century during the rule of the
Khitan. At first it was applied to some small and still insignificant tribes in the area of the
Onon River. After the fall of
Liao Dynasty in 1125, the Mongols became a leading steppe tribe. However, their wars with the
Jin Dynasty and
Tatars weakened them severely. In the 13th century, it grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and
Turkic tribes united under the rule of
Genghis Khan under a same identity (mostly cultural).
History
Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongol peoples can be traced back to the
Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and
Manchuria, who were defeated by
Modu Shanyu of the
Xiongnu after he became Emperor in 209 B.C. The identity of the Xiongnu is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, the fact that Chinese histories trace certain Turkic tribes from the Xiongnu complicates the issue. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories exclusively trace all the subsequent Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (mainly
Xianbei peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. in the case of the proto-Mongolic
Khitan).
Location of the Xianbei and other steppe nations in 300 AD.
Three prominent proto-Mongol groups split from the
Xianbei, as recorded by the Chinese histories: the
Rouran (claimed by some to be the
Avars), the
Khitan and the Shiwei (a sub-tribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Their culture was basically nomadic, their religion
Shamanism or
Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke a
Mongolic language, although most scholars agree that they were proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many distinctly Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings that are usually found with a parallel Chinese text (for example, nair=sun, sair=moon, tau=five, jau=hundred, m.r=horse, im.a=goat, n.q=dog, m.ng=silver, u.ul=winter, tau.l.a=rabbit, t.q.a=hen and m.g.o=snake). There is generally no doubt regarding the Khitan being proto-Mongol.
Asia in 500 AD, showing the Rouran Empire and its neighbors.
Geographically the
Tuoba Xianbei ruled Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran (
Yujiulu Shelun was the first to use the title
Khagan in 402) ruled Outer Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in Southern Manchuria north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the
Gok-Turks in 555, the
Uyghurs in 745 and the
Yenisei Kirghizs in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Gok-Turks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars. The Khitan, who were practically independent after their separation from the proto-Mongol
Kumo Xi in 388 A.D, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them,
Abaoji (872-926), established the Khitan
Liao Dynasty (907-1125 A.D). The Khitan fled west after their defeat by the Tungusic
Jurchens and founded the Kara-Khitan or
Western Liao dynasty (1125-1218 A.D) in eastern Kazakhstan. In 1218 Genghis Khan destroyed the Kara-Khitan Kingdom after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. The modern-day minority of Mongolic-speaking
Daurs in China are their direct descendants based on DNA evidence.
The Shiwei included a tribe called the Shiwei Menggu. Bodonchir Munkhag (c. 970 A.D) the founder of the
House of Borjigin and the ancestor of Genghis Khan is held to be descended from the Shiwei Menggu. The first historically recorded involvement of the Shiwei Mongols in foreign affairs is from the 1130s when there were reciprocally hostile relations between the successive khans of the
Khamag Mongol confederation (
Qaidu I,
Khabul Khan and
Ambaghai) and the emperors of the
Jin dynasty, the details of which are mainly recorded in the
Secret History of the Mongols.
With the expansion of the
Mongol Empire, the Mongols settled almost all over
Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the
Adriatic Sea to
Java and from
Japan to
Palestine. Mongols simultaneously became
Tsars of
Russia,
Padishahs of
Persia,
Emperors of China,
Great Khans of Mongolia and one Mongol even became
Sultan of Egypt (
Al-Adil Kitbugha). With the breakup of the Empire, the dispersed Mongols quickly adopted the mostly Turkish cultures surrounding them and got assimilated, forming parts of
Tatars (not confused with a tribe in ancient Mongolia),
Uzbeks,
Kazakhs,
Yugurs and
Moghuls. However, most of the Mongols returned to
Mongolia, retaining their language and culture. After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 the Mongols established their independent regime as
Northern Yuan. However, the
Oirads or Western Mongols began to challenge the
Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century.
Present-day
Khalkha Mongols and
Inner Mongolians are the most prominent of the remaining Eastern Mongols while the
Kalmyks in
Europe are the main descendants of the Western Mongols. The Khalkha emerged during the reign of
Dayan Khan (1464-1543) as one of the seven
tumens of the Eastern Mongols. They quickly became the dominant Mongol clan in Outer Mongolia.
Language
A Mongolian yurt
The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Some researchers have proposed a link to languages like
Tungusic and
Turkic, which are often included alongside Mongolic in a hypothetical group called
Altaic languages, but this grouping is controversial.
Physical characteristics
In terms of physical characteristics Mongolians exhibit a variety of features, with the typical
Asian features being most noticeable. Contrary to preconceptions, flat noses are rather rare among
Khalkha or Outer Mongolians. Instead, modestly long noses are far more common because of the colder weather, with the occasional
aquiline nose appearing frequently as well. Height and leg length vary from very short to very tall. Hair is typically Asian: straight and coarse, with body hair minimal. Skin color is very light brown, but long exposure to the sun can make it a very dark brown. A certain number of Mongolians mostly on the western parts of the country can exhibit lighter features such as light to dark blond/brown hair, fairer skin, blue or green eyes, hairiness to varying degrees. Some have reddish-light brown hair and pink face particularly due to the cold weather.
Epicanthic folds of the eyes exist on almost all Mongolians along with medium height, broader face, dark hair, high and pronounced cheekbones.
Geographic distribution
Today, people of Mongol origin live in
Mongolia,
China (
Inner Mongolia),
Russia, and a few other
central Asian countries.
The differentiation between tribes and peoples (nationalities) is handled differently depending on the country. The
Tumed,
Chahar,
Ordos,
Bargut (or Barga),
Buryats,
Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed),
Torguud,
Dariganga,
Üzemchin (or Üzümchin),
Bayid,
Khoton,
Myangad (Mingad),
Zakhchin (Zakchin),
Darkhad, and
Oirats (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all counted as tribes of the Mongols.
Mongolia
The population of Mongolia consists of 92.6% Mongols, numbering approximately 2.7 million. From the
middle ages to
early modern period the
Khalkha,
Uriankhai and
Buryats were counted as
eastern Mongols while the
Oirats, living mainly in the
Altay region, belonged to the western Mongols.
China
The Chinese census of 2000 counted 5.8 million Mongols, according to the narrow definition above. It should be noted that 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million Mongols. Most of them live in the
Inner Mongolia autonomous region, followed by
Liaoning province. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two.
Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the
Daur,
Monguor,
Dongxiang,
Bonan, and parts of the
Yugur. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol nationality, but are recognized as nationalities of their own.
Russia
In Russia, the
Buriats belong to the eastern Mongols. The western Mongols include the
Oirats in the Russian Altay and the
Kalmyks at the northern side of the
Caspian Sea, where they make up 53.3% of the population of Russia's autonomous province of
Kalmykia.. The
Tuva and the
Altay people are culturally close to Mongols, but speak Turkic languages. Together they amount to roughly a million people.
Gallery
See also
