Literature regarded as central to the Vedic
Hindu literary tradition was predominantly composed in
Sanskrit, Indeed, much of the
morphology and
linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the
Vedas and other Vedic texts.
Vedic literature is divided into two categories:
Śruti – that which is heard (i.e. revelation) and
Smriti – that which is remembered (i.e. tradition, not revelation). The Vedas constituting the former category are considered
scripture by many followers of Vedic religion. The post-Vedic scriptures form the latter category: the various
shastras and the
itihaases, or histories in epic verse. A sort of cross-over between the religious epics and Upanishads of the Vedas is the
Bhagavad Gita, considered to be revered scripture by almost all Hindus today.
The Vedas
The Vedas form the oldest layer of
Sanskrit literature and the oldest sacred texts of
Hinduism.
According to Vedic tradition, the Vedas are
"not human compositions", being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called
śruti ("what is heard").
Vedic
mantras are recited at Hindu prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions.
Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (
āstika). Two other Indian philosophies,
Buddhism and
Jainism, did not accept the authority of the Vedas and evolved into separate religions. In Indian philosophy these groups are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-Vedic" (
nāstika) schools.
The central focus of all the Vedas is the
Vedic sacrifice, officiated by four priests, each in charge of one of the Vedas. This
karmic ritual is mediated by the fire-demigod named
Agni. Only through Agni can the priests (and thus the rest of society) gain access to the Devas.
The
Vedas are four in number. The
, Yajur-, and Atharva Vedas represent various
, or branches, of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda.
- The veda contains hymns (mantras) that formulate the mythology of ancient Vedic practice;
- The veda consists mostly of mantras from the Rig Veda, but arranged in an order specifically suited to the Soma sacrifice;
- The Yajurveda contains detailed prose instructions for the sacrifices; and
- The Atharvaveda comprises semi-magical spells against enemies, sorcerers, diseases and mistakes made during the sacrificial ritual, as well as kingly duties and some deeper spiritual truths.
Each of the four Vedas may be divided into two sections:
- The Mantra portion, also called the (संहिता), is a collection of hymns to be used in Vedic sacrifices.
- The portion (ब्राह्मण) (not to be confused with Brahman, or the brahmin caste), contains specific rules and regulations for the sacrifices as well as prose commentaries explaining the meaning of the mantras and rituals.
The
, describing rules and purpose of Saṃhitās, are further divided:
- the (आरण्यक), which conclude the Brahmanas, are written along a blurry line between
- the (उपनिषद्), which contain highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between, the soul () and Brahman. The Upanishads are often referred to collectively as Vedanta ("the end of the Vedas"), not only because they appear physically in the concluding pages of each Veda, but also because the mystical truths they express are seen by many as the culmination of all the other Vedic knowledge.
The Upanishads
While the
Upanishads are indeed classed within the fold of the "Vedas", their actual importance to Hindu philosophy has far exceeded that of possibly any other set of Hindu
scriptures, and even resulted in the
Bhagavad Gita, which is a self-proclaimed
yoga upanishad. Thus, they deserve a look that is independent from the samhitas and brahamans, against whose excessive ritualism the Upanishads famously rebelled. They form
Vedanta and are the basis of much of Classical Hindu thought.
The Upanishads ("Sittings Near [a Teacher]") are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures primarily discuss philosophy and "cosmic reality"; they also contain transcripts of various debates or discussions. There are 123 books argued to be part of the Upanishads; however, only 13 are accepted by all Hindus as primary. They are commentaries on the Vedas and their branch of Hinduism is called Vedanta. See
Upanishads for a much more detailed look at the mystic backbone of Hinduism.
The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers from both East and West, from
Schrödinger,
Thoreau and
Emerson to
Rabindranath Tagore,
Mahatma Gandhi and
Aurobindo Ghosh, to be superlatively beautiful in poetry and rich in philosophy.
Post-Vedic Hindu scriptures
The new books that appeared afterwards were called
Smriti. Smrti literature includes
Itihasas (epics like
Ramayana,
Mahabharata),
Puranas (mythological texts),
Agamas (theological treatises) and
Darshanas (philosophical texts).
The
Dharmashastras (law books) are considered by many to form part of the smrti. From time to time great law-givers (eg
Manu,
Yajnavalkya and
Parashara) emerged, who codified existing laws and eliminated obsolete ones to ensure that the Hindu way of life was consistent with both the Vedic spirit and the changing times. However, it must be noted that the Dharmashastras have long been discarded by many groups of Hindus, namely those following
Vedanta,
Bhakti,
bhakit and
Tantra streams of Hinduism.
The Vedic philosophy reflected in the epics is the doctrine of
avatar (appearance of God on the Earth). The two main avatars of Vishnu that appear in the epics are
Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, and
Krishna, the chief protagonist in the
Mahabharata. Unlike the gods of the Vedic Samhitas and the more meditative, mystic and ethical Upanishadic ideas regarding the all-pervading and formless
Brahman, the avatars in these epics are more developed personalities, loving and righteous descents of the Supreme Being among mortals.
The Bhagavad Gita
Many followers of the Vedic religion or Sanatan Dharma has said that the most succinct and powerful abbreviation of the overwhelmingly diverse realm of Vedic thought is to be found in the
Bhagavad Gita (also known simply "The Gita"). Essentially, it is a microcosm of Vedanta- Bhakti, Yogi, and Karmi aspect of Sanatan Dharma, or Vedic religion. Bhagavad Gita (literally: Song of the God) is a part of the epic poem
Mahabharata and is revered in Hinduism. It speaks not only to Vaishnavas but to all people of all faiths, and it is accepted by the members of all Vedic streams as a seminal text. Indeed, the "tag line" of each chapter of the Bhagavad Gita refers to the book as the "Gita Upanishad" and as a "scripture of yoga," thereby establishing that in this text, Lord Krishna speaks the truths of yoga and the Upanishads for all.
What holds the devotee's mind foremost is Krishna's repeated injunction to abandon the mortal self to the infinite love of the Lord. He not only speaks to the mind and to the Atma, individual spirit's innate sense of
Dharma, but calls for overwhelming love. By loving God one also loves the immortal Self, finds harmony in oneself, and finds oneself at peace with the entire cosmos. The Gita speaks of cultivating the intellect, properly using the body, and always remaining equipoised in relation to the greater Self. The Bhagavad Gita truly presents itself as a liberation scripture universal in its message
The Puranas
The Puranas are a vast literature of stories and allegory. Eighteen are considered to be
Mahapuranas, or
Great Puranas, and thus authoritative references on the Gods and Goddesses, religious rites and holy places (most of which are in the Indian subcontinent, known as
Bharat).
The Tevaram Saivite hymns
The
Tevaram is a body of remarkable hymns exuding Bhakti composed more than 1400-1200 years ago in the classical Tamil language by three Saivite composers. They are credited with igniting the Bhakti movement in the whole of India.
Divya Prabandha Vaishnavite hymns
The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira(4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD[1], by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The work is the beginning of the canonization of the twelve Vaishnava poet saints, and these hymns are still sung extensively today. The works were lost before they were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamunigal. The Prabandha sings the praise of Sriman Narayana (or Vishnu) and his many forms. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are known as the Divya Desams.
In South India, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered as equal to the Vedas, hence the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100+ verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaaril Maaran Sadagopan) of Thiruk Kurugoor.
Other Vedic texts
Other famous texts of Hinduism include those of the bhakti yoga school (loving devotion to God) such as the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas (an epic poem on the scale of Milton's Paradise Lost based on the
Ramayana), the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (a religious song of the divine love of Krishna and his consort Radha), Adi Shankara's commentaries and other works, Ramanujacharya's nine books including "Sri Bhasya", Madhvacharya's commentaries and the Devi Mahatmya (the tales of Devi, the Vedic mother goddess, in her many forms as Shakti, Durga, Parvati, etc.).
See also
