Dongyi () was a collective term for people in eastern China and in the east of China. People referred to as Dongyi vary across the ages.

The word yi 夷

The Chinese word yi in Dongyi has a long history and complex semantics.

Meanings

Chinese dictionaries give various meanings of yi 夷. English translations include:

• (in ancient China) barbarians in the east

• foreign tribes or foreigners

• at ease; peaceful

• to level; to make level, even or smooth

• safe

• to eliminate; to exterminate; to kill; to execute

• injuries; wounds

• grades; classes

• common; usual; ordinary

• great; big

• a Chinese family name

These first two senses of yi reflect the linguistic Sinocentrism of Chinese words that can mean both condescending "barbarian" and semantically neutral "foreigner; outsider". For instance, hu 胡 "barbarian; foreign; non-Chinese" (e.g., erhu) originally meant hu 鬍 "beard; whiskers", and was chosen to name the Hu 胡 or Donghu 東胡 "eastern barbarians: an ancient Tungusic people northeast of China".

Characters

thumb|150pix|Oracle bone script for yi 夷 or shi 尸
The modern Chinese character 夷 for yi "barbarian; foreigner; etc." combines da 大 "big" and gong 弓 "bow". However, it graphically descends from an ancient pictograph showing a person with a bent back and legs.

The (121 CE) Shuowen Jiezi character dictionary, which defines yi 夷 as 平 "level; peaceful" or 東方之人 "people of eastern regions", first records that this Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) regular script 夷 and the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE) seal script for shi incorporate the 大 "big" and 弓 "bow" radicals (recurring character elements). The Dongyi are associated with archery, and legends say their leader Houyi 后羿 invented the bow.
Bernhard Karlgren says that in the earlier bronze script for yi inscribed on Zhou Dynasty (ca. 1045 BCE-ca. 256 BCE) Chinese bronze inscriptions, "The graph has 'man' and 'arrow', or 'arrow' with something wound around the shaft."

The earliest records of yi were inscribed on oracle bones dating from the late Shang Dynasty (ca. 1600–ca. 1046 BCE). This oracle bone script was used interchangeably for yi 夷 and for shi 尸 "corpse; personator of the dead; inactive; lay out". The historical linguist Xu Zhongshu explains this oracle character depicts either a "corpse"' with two bent legs or a "barbarian" custom of sitting with one's legs stretched out instead of the Chinese norm of squatting on one's heels.

Etymology

Historical linguists have tentatively reconstructed yi 夷's ancient pronunciations and etymology. The modern Standard Mandarin pronunciation yi descends from (ca. 6th-9th centuries CE) Middle Chinese and (ca. 6th-3rd centuries BCE) Old Chinese. Middle and Old Chinese reconstructions of yi 夷 "barbarian; spread out" include i < *djər, yij < *ljɨj, and ji < *ləi.

Axel Schuessler hypothesizes an Old Chinese etymological development from *li 夷 "extend; expose; display; set out; spread out" to *lhi 尸 "to spread out; lie down flat (in order to sleep); motionless; to set forth (sacrificial dishes)", to "personator of a dead ancestor", and to "corpse".

Historical usages

Pre-Qin usages

It is not easy to determine the times of people that a Classical Chinese document reflects.

Literature describing a pre-Xia Dynasty period does not use the character yi. As for the Xia Dynasty, some groups of people are referred to as the Yi. For example, "Yu Gong" (禹貢) of the Classic of History calls people in Qingzhou and Xuzhou as Laiyi (萊夷), Yuyi (嵎夷) and Huaiyi (淮夷). Another yi-related term is Jiu-yi (九夷), literally Nine Yi, which could have also had the connotation The Numerous Yi or The Many Different Kinds of Yi, and which appears in the famous passage in The Analects that reads, "The Master (i.e., Confucius) desired to live among the Nine Yi." The term "Dongyi" is not used for this period.
Shang Dynasty oracle shell and bone writings record yi but not Dongyi. Shima Kunio's concordance of oracle inscriptions lists twenty occurrences of the script for 夷 or 尸, most frequently (6 times) in the compound zhishi 祉尸 "bless the personator; blessed personator". Michael Carr notes some contexts are ambiguous, but at least, "Three compounds refer to 'barbarians' (in modern characters, fayi 伐夷 'attack barbarians,' zhengyi 征夷 'punish barbarians,' and yifang 夷方 'barbarian regions')." Oracle inscriptions record that Shang King Wu Ding (r. ca. 1250-1192 BCE) made military expeditions on the Yi, and King Di Xin (r. ca. 1075-1046 BCE) waged a massive campaign against the Yifang 夷方 "barbarian regions".

It appears that the Yifang were the same people as Huaiyi (Huai River Yi), Nanhuaiyi (Southern Huai Yi), Nanyi (Southern Yi) and Dongyi in bronzeware inscriptions of the Western Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty attempted to keep the Yi under its control. The most notable is the successful campaign against the Huaiyi and the Dongyi by the Duke of Zhou.

During the Spring and Autumn Period, Jin, Zheng, Qi and Song tried to seize control of the Huai River basin, which was occupied by the Huaiyi. But the region finally fell under the influence of Chu in the south. At the same time, people in the east and south ceased to be called Dongyi as they founded their own states. These Yifang states include the State of Xu and the State of Jiang. The State of Xu occupied large areas of Jiangxi, Jiangsu and Anhui between the Huai and Yangzi Rivers. Eventually, it was conquered by the State of Wu in 512 BC. The State of Jiang was absorbed by Chu. Recent archaeological excavations reveal that the State of Xu's influence extended to western Jiangxi in modern Jing'an County. This includes bronzeware inscriptions about the State of Xu and also a tomb with many nanmu coffins containing sacrificial female victims.

References to Dongyi became ideological during the Warring States period probably because selves and others had subtle cultural differences among Chinese. The Classic of Rites (early 4th BC) made the first reference to the combination of "Dongyi" (east), "Xirong" (west), "Nanman" (south) and "Beidi" (north) in fixed four directions. At the same time "Dongyi" acquired a clearly pejorative nuance.

Post-Qin usages

thumb|"Barbarians" in the ancient [[Sinocentric world, including eastern Dongyi 東夷, western Xirong 西戎, southern Nanman 南蠻, and northern Beidi 北狄, plus Huawaizhidi 化外之地 "uncivilized regions".]]
The more "China" expanded, the further east the term "Dongyi" was applied to. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian uses the term "Manyi" (蠻夷), but not "Dongyi". It puts the section of "Xinanyi (southwestern Yi) liezhuan (biographies)", but not "Dongyi liezhuan". The Book of Han does not put this section either but calls a Dongye (濊) chief in the Korean Peninsula as Dongyi. The Book of Later Han puts the section of "Dongyi liezhuan (東夷列伝)" and covers Buyeo, Yilou, Goguryeo, Dongwozu, Hui, Samhan and Wa, in other words, eastern Manchuria, Korea, Japan and some other islands. The Book of Jin positioned Dongyi inside the section of "Siyi" (barbarians in four directions) along with "Xirong", "Nanman" and "Beidi". The Book of Sui, the Book of Tang and the New Book of Tang adopt the section of "Dongyi" and covers eastern Manchuria, Korea, Japan and optionally Sakhalin and Taiwan. During the Song Dynasty, the official history books replaced Dongyi with Waiguo (外國) and Waiyi (外夷).

Other usage of Dongyi in Chinese history books

1) Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han
These two history books do not assign many chapters to describe the history of Dongyi. However, it includes the simple description Wiman Joseon. Wiman fled from the state of Yan to Gojoseon, and he disguised as if he was Gojoseon people. As describing the disguise of Wiman, Sima Qian says that that Gojoseon people are Manyi(蠻夷) instead of Dongyi. Book of Han uses the same term as Records of the Grand Historian.

2) Book of the Later Han
This book was written by Fan Ye (historian). This book contains the chapter of 'Dongyi', which describes the history of Korea including Buyeo, Goguryeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and Samhan, and Japan including Wa.

3) Records of Three Kingdoms
This book was written by Chen Shou, and also contains the chapter about 'Dongyi'. The chapter of "Wuwan Xianbei Dongyi" describes the Wuwan tribes, Xianbei tribes, and Dongyi tribes respectively. In the section of Dongyi, this book explains the Korean and Japanese ancient kingdoms. Korean kingdoms include Buyeo, Goguryeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and Samhan. Japanese kingdom includes Wa (Japan).

4) Book of Jin
This book was written by Fang Xuanling at Tang dynasty. It has the chapter of 'Four Yi', and describes the Manchurian, Korean, and Japanese history. Machurian and Korean include Buyeo, Mahan confederacy, Jinhan confederacy and Sushen. Japaneses includes Wa (Japan)
5) Book of Song
This history book describes the history of Liu Song Dynasty, but also contains the simple explanation the neighbor states. The Chapter of Dongyi of this book describes the ancient history of Korea and Japan such as Goguryeo, Baekje and Wa (Japan).

6) Book of Qi
The Book of Qi is the history book of Southern Qi. In the 58th volume, the history of Dongyi's history is described, which includes the ancient Korean and Japanese history such as Goguryeo, Baekje, Gaya and Wa (Japan).

7) History of Southern Dynasties
This book is about the history of Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang Dynasty, and Chen Dynasty, but also includes the history of Dongyi. In the chapter of Dongyi, this book describes the Korean and Japanese history such as Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, Wa (Japan), and so on. . Interestingly, this book says that Dongyi's state was Gojoseon while Sima Qian says that Gojoseon people is Manyi. .

8) Book of Sui
The Book of Sui describes the history about the Sui Dynasty, and was compiled at Tang dynasty. The chapter of Dongyi's history describes the history of Korean, Manchurian and Japanese such as Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, Mohe, Liuqiu, and Wa (Japan).

Modern usages

China

Some Chinese scholars extend the historical use of Dongyi to prehistoric times. They consider Dongyi as one of the origins of Chinese people, based on the hypothesis of the pluralistic origins of Chinese culture that became popular in 1980s.

People called Dongyi in this sense lived in Haidai (海岱) region, the lower reaches of the Yellow and Huai Rivers, from the Neolithic period.

The cultural evolution in Haidai region is considered as follows:

• Houli culture (6400 BC - 5700 BC)

• Beixin culture (5300 BC - 4100 BC)

• Dawenkou culture (4100 BC - 2600 BC)

• Longshan culture (3200 BC - 1900 BC)

• Yueshi culture (2000 BC - 1600 BC)

The ages differ among scholars

The Shandong Longshan culture was characterized by large-scale hierarchical groups of walled settlements. The Yueshi culture which replaced the Longshan culture around 2000 B.C. saw a decline of civilization. Groups of settlements were dissolved and the highly-developed pottery technology of the Shandong Longshan culture was lost.

(Note: The Longshan Culture was not just Dongyi and did not just exist in Shandong and other eastern coastal areas of China. Areas further west, including much of the middle and lower Yellow River Valley region, was also a part of the Longshan Culture area. Historians such as Jacques Gernet think that the Longshan Culture was also culturally ancestral to the Erlitou Culture and the later Shang dynasty in the middle Yellow River Valley region. There are some good evidence for this claim, for both the Longshan and Shang cultures shared the following basic elements:

• A similar technical of divination based on heating animal bones and shells until they crack.

• Similar construction techniques for city-walls, fortifications and building platforms using rammed earth.

• Similar artistic styles.

The Shang dynasty technology of bronze metallurgy seems to be the descendant of high temperature ceramic-making techniques used by the late Neolithic Longshan Culture.

The Longshan Culture might have been replaced by the Yueshi Culture in Shandong but further to the west it continued and developed into the Erlitou Culture around 1900 - 1800 BC.)

During the Yueshi culture in Shandong, the Erlitou culture and the subsequent Erligang culture gradually stretched from the Yellow River valley in the west. Since sites of the Yueshi culture are coterminous with those of the Erligang culture, the traditional theory that the Shang Dynasty originated in the east was shattered. Shang civilization extended to central Shandong at the end of the Shang Dynasty and it was during the middle Western Zhou Dynasty that the central civilization covered the entire Haidai region.
It is notable that Longshan people seemingly had their own writing system. A pottery inscription of the Longshan culture discovered in Dinggong Village, Zouping County, Shandong Province contains eleven characters and they do not look like the direct ancestor of Chinese characters. Chinese scholar Feng Shi (馮時) argued in 1994 that this inscription can be interpreted as written by the Longshan people. Other scholars, like Ming Ru, are doubtful about attributing a Neolithic date to the inscription. Some other scholars also claim a connection between ancient Dongyi and the modern Yi people in southwestern China.

See also

• Houyi (后羿)

• Huawaizhidi

• Hua-Yi Distinction

• Shùn (舜)

• Sinocentrism

Footnotes