Decolonization of the Americas refers to the process by which the countries in the
Americas gained their independence from
European rule.
Decolonization began with a series of revolutions in the late 18th and early to mid-19th centuries. The status quo then prevailed for more than a century, excepting the independence of Cuba (whose war for independence culminated in the
Spanish-American War).
Peaceful independence by voluntary withdrawal of colonial powers then became the norm in the second half of the 20th century. However, there are still many British and Dutch colonies in North America (mostly Caribbean islands), as well as the American possessions of
Puerto Rico and the
US Virgin Islands; the
French Republic has fully "integrated" most of its former colonies as fully constitutent "departments" of France.
United States
The first independent sovereign country in the Americas was
New Hampshire, which declared its independence from
Great Britain with a new written state Constitution on January 5, 1776, and was one of the thirteen states that founded the
United States of America six months later with the
Declaration of Independence.
The
United States declared independence from Britain on July 4, 1776 (comprised at the time of twelve British colonies and the independent state of New Hampshire, which had been a British colony six months prior), which was recognized with the
Treaty of Paris in 1783.
Countries in the Americas by date of independence. Note that the United States did not complete its continental territorial expansion until 1867.
Spanish colonies
The Spanish colonies in America won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century. During the
Peninsula War, several assemblies were established after 1810 by the
Criollos to rule the lands in the name of
Ferdinand VII of Spain. This experience of self-government, along with the influence of
Liberalism and the ideas of the
French and
American Revolutions, brought about a struggle for independence, led by the
Libertadores. The colonies freed themselves, often with help from the
British Empire, which aimed to achieve political influence and trade without the Spanish monopoly.
In
South America,
Simón Bolívar and
José de San Martín led the final phase of the independence struggle. Although Bolívar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the
War of the Triple Alliance and the
War of the Pacific.
A related process took place in Spain's
North and
Central American colonies with the
Mexican War of Independence and related struggles. Independence was achieved in 1821 by a coalition uniting under
Agustín de Iturbide and the
Army of the Three Guarantees. Unity was maintained for a short period under the
First Mexican Empire, but within a decade the region had also split into various nations.
Portuguese colonies
Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in America. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. Therefore, it is not common to refer to "Portuguese America" (like Spanish America, Dutch America, etc.), but rather to Brazil, as a unified colony since its very beginnings.
As a result, Brazil did not split into several states by the time of Independence (1822), as happened to its Spanish-speaking neighbors. The adoption of monarchy instead of federal republic in the first six decades of Brazilian political sovereignty also contributed to the nation's unity.
In the Portuguese colony
Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese
king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first
Emperor. This was generally peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal, although some
guerrillas
were fought between Portuguese troops and civilians. Portugal recognized Brazil's independence 3 years later upon compensation.
Canada
On July 1, 1867,
Canada became a dominion within the British empire. At this point the
Dominion of Canada included Upper and Lower Canada (southern
Ontario and
Quebec, respectively),
Nova Scotia, and
New Brunswick. The British colonies of
British Columbia (1871),
Prince Edward Island (1873), and
Newfoundland (1949, following
World War II) would eventually join Confederation. Britain also ceded control of
Rupert's Land and the
North-Western Territory (1870), and the Arctic Islands (1880) to Canada. The Canadian government acquired the
Sverdrup Islands in the Arctic region from
Norway in 1931 after the previous owner nation had them for two decades in part of polar explorer
Roald Amundsen's claim to the
North Pole for the Norwegian flag in 1908/09. This level of independence was achieved completely by political means through negotiations between the governments of the British North American colonies (
Charlottetown Conference and
Quebec Conference). There had been two attempts at achieving Canadian independence by armed force in both Upper and Lower Canada during 1837-1838 (The
Rebellion of 1837) however both were put down by British authorities. Delaying the transfer of Rupert's Land to Canada was the
Red River Rebellion in 1869, which sought independence and self-government but was put down by the new Canadian government, leading to the creation of the
Royal North-West Mountain Police. The same region also fought for independence again in 1885 in the
North-West Rebellion but the insurgency was met with armed force by Canadian troops and the
RNWMP. In British Columbia, unceded territories of various native peoples remain in dispute, with numerous native governments refusing to recognize Canadian sovereignty since the province joined Confederation. The only formally-treated areas of British Columbia are a small group of treaties near Victoria, the lands of the
Nisga'a Nation flanking the
Nass River, and the
Treaty 8 lands in the province's northeast.
Newfoundland was also given Dominion status on
September 26,
1907, although as noted above, this was superseded when it joined the Confederation in 1949.
From 1867 until 1931, Britain maintained control of foreign policy. The
Treaty of Westminster transferred that control to Canada. Formal permission of the
British Parliament, however, was required for some amendments to Canada's basic law, the
British North America Act, 1867. With the passing of the
Canada Act, 1982, this last formal legislative link with the mother country was severed, and Canada assumed total independence from H.M. Government in London.
Spanish-American War
In 1898, the
United States won the
Spanish-American War and occupied
Cuba and
Puerto Rico, ending Spanish territorial control in the Americas. Still, the early 20th century saw a stream of immigration of poor people and political exiles from Spain to the former colonies, especially Cuba, Mexico and Argentina. After the 1970s, the flow was inverted. In the 1990s, Spanish companies like
Repsol and
Telefónica invested in
South America, often buying
privatized companies.
20th century
Other countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
- Guyana: from the United Kingdom, in 1966.
- Barbados: from the United Kingdom, in 1966
- Bahamas: Granted internal self-government in 1964 and, then achieved full independence from the United Kingdom in 1973.
- Grenada: from the United Kingdom, in 1974
- Dominica: from the United Kingdom, in 1978
- Belize (formerly British Honduras): from the United Kingdom, in 1981
Current non-sovereign territories
Some parts of the Americas are still administered by European countries:
Additionally, the former Spanish colony of
Puerto Rico and the former
Danish West Indies (now called the
U.S. Virgin Islands) are unincorporated territories of the
United States.
The remaining non-sovereign territories of the Americas have generally retained this status by choice, and enjoy a significant degree of self-government. (Some have nevertheless been placed on the
U.N. list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, an ongoing subject of controversy.) Aruba, for example, seceded from the Netherlands Antilles on January 1, 1986, and became a separate, self-governing member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Movement toward full independence by 1996 was halted at Aruba's request in 1990.
French Guiana,
Guadeloupe and
Martinique are not considered colonies of
France, but have been "incorporated" into France itself, as overseas
départements (
départements d'outre-mer, or DOM).
Category:Colonization of the AmericasCategory:Independence movementsde:Dekolonisierung Amerikases:Descolonización de Américafr:Décolonisation des Amériquesid:Dekolonisasi Amerikazh:美洲非殖民化
